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The raising of a Liberty Pole, a tradition during
the revolutionary years. Liberty Poles or Liberty Trees were erected where
colonists gathered to hear patriotic speeches or to send sons off to war.
Image courtesy of Library of Congress.
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Most observers expected the revolution to be
put down quickly. A colonial population of about 2.5 million people, many
of whom remained loyal to the British crown, stacked against a nation of 10
million boasting the largest, best trained army and navy in existence, seemed
like a mismatch.
Still, the British faced a key obstacle: The Atlantic
Ocean. In addition, the Redcoats would have to fight in an unfamiliar
wilderness, totally unlike anything they had experienced in the open
battlefields of Europe. As we shall soon see, this proved to be a crucial
advantage to the Americans.
Not long after the Declaration of Independence
was enthusiastically adopted, General George Washington and his Continental army
suffered a serious defeat at New York, loosing control of the largest American
city and its harbor to the British. Thanks to clever evasive tactics,
Washington saved his men from total annihilation at the hands of a vastly
superior force. Throughout the remainder of 1776, disaster after disaster
hammered away at American hopes. Battered and beaten, Washington and his
remaining 8000 troops slipped away across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania
in the late fall of 1776 to regroup.
The winter encampment was a dismal time for the
Continentals. Even the normally optimistic Washington was dispirited,
writing "I think the game is pretty near up". Enveloped by despair and
doubt, desertions and disease inflicted a toll on the Americans. One
bright spot was Thomas Paine's The Crisis, a publication expressing
gratitude to the soldiers remaining loyal to the Revolution. "These are the
times that try men's souls", wrote Paine, and it became a great rallying cry at a
moment when all seemed lost.
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This famous
painting by Emanuel Leutze captures the historic moment when General George
Washington led the American revolutionary troops across the Delaware River,
surprising the Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on
December 26, 1776. The dramatic image of Washington leading his troops to
victory conveys an emotional and patriotic message to all who love America. Public
domain image |
Washington knew some kind of victory was needed
to revive morale and show everyone that the Americans could still fight with
resolve. At that, he decided to bet everything on one bold surprise
attack.
On the very cold Christmas night of 1776,
Washington and 2400 of his men quietly crossed back over the icy Delaware River
to the New Jersey side, and marched nine miles to Trenton, where over 1000
Hessian troops were sleeping off their Christmas excesses (Hessians were Germans
paid by King George III to fight against the colonists. Many of the 30,000
eventually serving in America came from the province of Hesse-Cassel, hence the
name "Hessians"). Attacked at sunrise, the Hessians were completely
surprised, being routed in minutes. When British reinforcements rushed to
the Trenton area, Washington deceived the opposition into believing his army was
stationary by leaving their campfires burning brightly. While the British
were preparing to attack an empty campsite, Washington sped to Princeton and
defeated a group of British regulars in early January, 1777. With these
two impressive victories, the American spirit was reborn. During the next
few months, volunteers joined the Continental Army at a solid pace.
Washington's big gamble had paid off.
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"Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne
influenced
London to attack New York from Canada. Traveling with his four post bed
and fine wines, Burgoyne was not prepared for what he found in the rugged
American landscape. Image courtesy of
National Archives.
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In 1777, the British War Office in London
developed a plan they thought for sure would put an end to the American
rebellion. The plan was to split the colonies in two by controlling the
waterways between New York and Montreal. Three armies were to be involved
in a joint venture to make this happen. One force, under General William
Howe, was to move north out of New York City and take Albany and control of the
Hudson River.
A second detachment, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger, was
ordered to proceed east toward Albany from Lake Ontario.
The largest
deployment, under the command of General John Burgoyne, was to travel south of
Montreal, take Lake Champlain, and rendezvous with St. Leger and Howe at Albany,
where they would combine to strike the final death blow against the American
rebels.
Unfortunately for them, the maps of the London
war planners did not provide information on the terrain the British military
would have to overcome. The pencil lines directing troop movements, in reality, represented treks
through swamps, mountains, and dense forests, all swarming with sharp-shooter
militiamen prepared to give their lives in defense of their homes and country.
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British general John Burgoyne hands over his
sword to American General Horatio Gates, on October 17, 1777, at Saratoga, New
York. The American victory was the pivotal event of the Revolution,
convincing European observers the underdog rebels might actually defeat the
mighty British. A few months later, France openly agreed to provide badly
needed assistance to the upstart Continental Army. Image courtesy
of
Library of Congress.
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For reasons that remain unclear, Howe led his
force south toward Philadelphia, without the knowledge of Burgoyne or St. Leger.
After several victorious engagements against Washington, Howe seized
Philadelphia in late September, 1777.
St. Leger, moving eastward from Lake Ontario,
encountered resistance at Fort Stanwix, but completely reversed course when word
came of a rapidly approaching large column of troops under the command of
General Benedict Arnold (this was before his treason). Of the three
British officers scheduled to link up at Albany, only Burgoyne got close to his
destination, but this turned out to be a disaster for him.
Burgoyne started southward from Montreal with
about 8000 men, but he was not trained to lead such a large expedition through a
forested wilderness. Felled trees by American axmen and other obstacles slowed his progress
to a crawl. Motivated patriots from all over New England were gathering
in New York and clashed frequently with Redcoats, sometimes inflicting heavy
casualties at little cost to themselves. By the time Burgoyne reached Saratoga, New York (less than 40
miles north of Albany) his situation was extremely serious. His munitions
nearly gone, his supply lines severed, and with no reinforcements to join him, Burgoyne found himself
surrounded by 20,000 American soldiers under the command of General Horatio
Gates. Realizing he had no choice, the British general surrendered his
remaining 6000 men over to Gates on October 17, 1777. The victory at
Saratoga proved to be the pivotal event of the American Revolution.
As crucial as the triumph at Saratoga was
logistically, the loudest reverberations were heard in Paris and other European
capitals. The French had been sympathetic to the plight of the Americans,
and in fact, had been secretly providing badly needed materiel from
the beginning. Now that the Continentals had demonstrated the possibility
of upsetting Great Britain, the French were eager to openly support the
revolution, in hopes of humiliating their arch enemy across the English Channel.
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Washington and Lafayette, concerned for the well
being of the poorly
clothed soldiers at Valley Forge These two leaders greatly respected one
another. After the war, Lafayette returned to America on several
occasions, receiving a well-earned hero's welcome each time. Image courtesy of
National Archives
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Largely through the diplomatic charm of Benjamin Franklin, France
committed itself to send
gold, gunpowder, shot, equipment, ships, and troops to supplement the American
forces.
The most famous French contributor to the
liberation of America was, of course,
Marie Joseph Paul, better known as the Marquis de Lafayette, who had been
serving loyally at Washington's side even before the Franco-American alliance was
officially formed.
In addition to France, Spain and the
Netherlands now supported the Americans. Volunteers from other European
countries came to offer assistance also. From Prussia (modern day Germany)
came Baron Friedrich von Steuben, and Casimer Pulaski and Thaddeus Kosciuszko,
both of Poland.
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Lafayette's service to America is honored on this
commemorative $1.00 coin released in 1900, appearing next to George Washington.
The figure on the reverse is similar to the statue of Lafayette erected in
Paris, as a gift to France from the American people.
Photo courtesy of Ira & Larry Goldberg
Coins & Collectibles, Inc., Beverly Hills, CA.
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Brilliant military strategists all, these officers helped
transform the Continental army into a cohesive unit of professional soldiers,
and participated in the formulation of effective defense operations.
Even with the French alliance, the next several
years produced little more than a stalemate. Seemingly, every step forward
(George Rogers Clark's clearing the Northwest of British forces, a big win
against Tories at Cowpens, South Carolina, and the widespread waging of a
successful guerilla warfare campaign against British troops) was offset by a
stunning setback elsewhere (disheartening winter at Valley Forge, the loss of
5500 men captured at Charleston, South Carolina, and ceding several southern
states back over to British control). Through all the uncertainty and
misery, George Washington remained the strong, devoted leader, admired greatly
by those whom he led. Had a man of lesser abilities been in charge, the
entire American dream of independence might have collapsed.
Finally, a combination of circumstances aligned
themselves to break the stalemate. An army of 6000 Frenchmen landed at
Newport, Rhode Island in the summer of 1780, and joined up with Washington at
White Plains, New York. Together, they harassed the British military
occupying New York City, then under the command of General Henry Clinton.
The next year, Washington got the message he had been waiting so long the hear:
A powerful French naval fleet was on its way to America! Meanwhile,
General Lord Cornwallis decided to move his Redcoats northward into Virginia,
basing himself at Yorktown, located just a few miles from Jamestown, the first
successful English settlement in the New World. Cornwallis was supplied by
the Royal British navy operating out of New York harbor.
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The surrender of British forces at Yorktown, by
eyewitness John Trumbull. British General Lord Cornwallis was not present.
Apparently too ashamed, he sent his second in command, General Charles O'Hara.
General Benjamin Lincoln (on white horse) receives the surrender, after O'Hara
tried to capitulate to the French on the left. George Washington is on
horse, under American flag. As marching British soldiers put down their
arms, a band played "The World Turned Upside Town". The victory at
Yorktown, for all practical purposes, ended the American Revolution.
Image courtesy of
The
Architect of the Capitol.
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Following Washington's instructions, the French
fleet positioned itself at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to form a blockade,
depriving Cornwallis of his supply line.
In August, 1781, Washington faked
an attack on New York, to deceive Clinton into believing that a major assault on
the city was imminent, then made a mad dash to the northern shores of Chesapeake
Bay, where his army embarked on transport vessels headed south to Yorktown.
By September, Washington had amassed 15,000 troops surrounding Yorktown, while
the French navy was busy defeating a British naval contingent sent to relieve
Cornwallis. For the next month, the noose tightened around the British
position. Realizing he was hopelessly trapped, Cornwallis surrendered his
entire army of 7000 men on October 19, 1781.
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Jubilant patriots raise the flag at Independence
Hall in Philadelphia, where the quest for liberty began in 1776. Americans
today owe much to those brave men and women who risked everything and sacrificed
much to launch our country. Image courtesy of
National Archives.
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Yorktown was the last major conflict of the
American Revolution. After the defeat at Yorktown, it was obvious to
everyone that
Great Britain would never again control her former colonies. An army of
farmers and shopkeepers, long snubbed by British elitists as mere peasants, had
defeated the most powerful empire on earth.
Thanks to the skillful negotiating team of John
Jay, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin, a peace treaty was signed in
September 1783, when Britain formally acknowledged American independence.
For the first time in history, a colonial
population had successfully broken free from its mother country. In its
place, a new nation was born where the concept of individual liberty and
representative government was established, eventually to become the model
worldwide for those seeking freedom from oppression. |
